J. Electrochem. Sci. Technol Search

CLOSE


J. Electrochem. Sci. Technol > Epub ahead of print
Phan, Thi, Nguyen, Tran, and Vo: Tin Nanoparticles Decorated on Banana-peel-derived Carbon as a Stable and High-rate-performance Anode for Lithium-ion Batteries

Abstract

In this work, dispersion on banana-peel-derived carbonaceous supporting material addresses pure tin anode's volume variation and poor cycling performance. The Sn/C composite was prepared using reductive deposition of metallic tins directly on the carbon matrix. The composite electrode delivers a specific capacity of 307.7 mAh g–1 at a specific current of 0.1 Ag–1 after 350 cycles. Noticeably, the rate capability of the Sn-anode is significantly improved by decorating it with carbon materials, which is demonstrated by a rate capacity of 319.9 mAh g–1 at a specific current of 10 A g–1. These improvements could be attributed to the buffering effect of the carbon matrix, which could not only well-accommodate and relieve the lattice strains raised by significant volume variations of alloying anode but also stabilize the solid electrolyte interphase and significantly increase the charge conductivity of the composite electrode.

INTRODUCTION

With the increasing concern about energy security, the race for renewable energy has become the most secure choice to release energy supplies from the hard dependence on fossil fuels [1]. Besides, climate change, caused by activities using nonrenewable resources, is one of the most significant worldwide challenges, which the transition to green energy sources such as solar energy, wind turbines, and dynamic tidal power could address [2]. However, due to weather dependence, these energies suffer from low efficiency and unreliable production disadvantages. Those drawbacks could be accomodated by suitable energy storage systems with high energy and power density in which lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have recently emerged as a competitive candidate [3,4]. Furthermore, as the principal weakness in the practical application of electric vehicles (EVs), improved performance of LIBs has been the keynote research topic for the past decades [5].
Due to its low theoretical capacity, the most common anode for commercial LIBs, based on graphite, is unsuitable for the high-energy-density demand of EVs or future portable devices [6,7]. Therefore, the research for developing carbon-alternative anode materials was conducted among various elements. In the same group as carbon, metallic tin (Sn) has become an attractive candidate for anode materials. As an alloying reactant to lithium, tin electrodes have a theoretical capacity of 960 mAh g–1 (almost three times higher than graphite, 372 mAh g–1) [8]. Despite this lower value compared to silicon (4200 mAh g–1) [9], metallic tin possesses higher electrical conductivity (resistivity of 10-7Ω m, significantly lower than 2×103 Ω m of silicon) which could improve the charge transfer and enhance the rate performance of the cells. However, the large volume change during lithiation/delithiation of the alloying mechanism suppresses the cycle life of the tin-based electrodes [10]. Therefore, the nanostructured designs and dispersion on the stable matrix have been applied to relieve the strain and accommodate the structure damage caused by the volume expansion and shrinkage [11]. Among various matrix materials, carbonaceous materials are well-known as an effective buffering layer for alloying anode due to their abundantly porous structures and high electrical conductivity [12]. Biomass, especially based on agricultural residue, has been considered the most effective strategy in energy production [13]. In addition, as one of the largest harvested amount of agricultural crops in Southeast Asia countries, including Vietnam, the mass production and consumption of bananas led to their large amount of wasted peels. This is an abundant source of carbon derivation [1416]. The low cost, facile production, and safety make banana peels one of the reasonable choices for fabricating carbon buffering layer for alloying anode in lithium-ion batteries.
In this work, the nanostructured tin was synthesized via the reduction method and dispersed on a biomass-derived carbon matrix obtained by carbonization of wasted banana peels. The Sn/C electrode exhibited improved cycling behavior with a higher discharge capacity of 307 mAh g–1 at a specific current of 1.00 A g–1, and excellent rate performance with a capacity of 319.9 mAh g–1 at a specific current of 10.00 A g–1. This improvement could be attributed to the effective accommodation of the carbon matrix to buffer the tin particles' volume variation, demonstrating a promising anode for future LIBs.

EXPERIMENTAL

Chemicals

All chemicals used directly without purification, including tin (II) chloride dihydrate (SnCl2·2H2O) (98%), citric acid monohydrate (C6H8O·H2O) (99,5%), sodium borohydride (NaBH4) (98%), ethanol (C2H5OH) (99,5%), potassium hydroxide (KOH) (85%), hydrochloric acid (HCl) (37%) from Xilong – China; banana peels collected from Binh Dinh province – Vietnam; N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) (99.55%), Cu foil, Li foil (99.9%), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) (99.99%), ethylene carbonate (EC) (99%), dimethyl carbonate (DMC) (99%), diethyl carbonate (DEC) (99%), and fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) (99%) from Merck, Sigma-Aldrich.

Synthesis of materials

The biomass-derived carbon matrix was prepared via pyrolysis and activated by a chemical route following the reference [17]. Typically, the collected wasted banana peels were dried at 110°C for 24 hours before carbonization at 800°C for one hour at a ramping rate of 5°C min–1. The obtained solids were soaked in a 20% solution of KOH under constant stirring conditions for two hours at 70°C and then rinsed in 2 M HCl solution for another 15 hours at 60°C. The solids were washed with deionized (DI) water several times, reaching neutral pH, and dried at 110°C for 12 hours in a vacuum. The dried solids were treated at 300°C in air for three hours then soaked in 2 M HCl solution, rinsed to neutral pH with DI water. The final powder was pyrolyzed at 800°C, well-ground, and denoted as BC.
jecst-2024-00696i1.jpg
Scheme 1. Synthesis diagram of Sn/C composite.
The composite of tin@carbon was synthesized using a reduction method. In practice, 0.30 g of citric acid, 0.30 g of SnCl2·2H2O, and 0.20 g of BC were dispersed in 75 mL of DI water under ultrasonication followed by 30 minutes of stirring. The reductive solution was prepared by adding 1.00 g of NaBH4 into 75 mL DI water under stirring conditions. The dispersion of BC was treated in an ice bath to control the temperature below 5°C, then the NaBH4 solution was slowly added and the mixture was stirred for 2.5 hours. The solids were collected using centrifugation, rinsed in DI water five times, and dried at 80°C. The final solid was denoted as Sn/C. The pure tin was prepared in the same procedure without adding BC, and denoted as Sn. The procedure of synthesis is illustrated in Scheme 1.

Characteristics of the materials

The phase and crystal structure of the as-prepared samples were investigated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) conducted on Brucker D2 Advance with Cu-Kα anode wavelength of 1.5406 Å, 40 kV power, and 40 mA current. The chemical bonding information was studied using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra and Raman spectroscopy on an IR-Affinity-1S spectrometer (Shimadzu) and T64000 Raman with a 633-nm laser. The morphology was probed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Hitachi S-4800), while the internal structure was analyzed using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM, JEOL JEM2100F). The composite was also elementally mapped using energy-dispersive spectra (EDS). Thermogravimetry-Differential Thermal Analysis (TG-DTA) of the Sn/C sample was carried out from room temperature to 800°C in air.
The electrodes (mass load 0.88 mg cm–2) were prepared by mixing 70% sample, 15% carbon black, and 15% polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and dissolving into N-methyl pyrrolidinone (NMP) to form a slurry, which was then coated onto a copper foil (r = 0.6 cm) and dried overnight at 70°C in a vacuum for 24 h. The CR2032-type coin cell (Rotech Inc., Gwangju, Korea) was assembled in a glove box filled with pure argon. Metallic lithium was used as a lithium reference counter electrode, and about 50 L of a solution consisting of 1 M LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate (EC)/diethyl carbonate (DMC) mixture (1:1, by volume) was used as an electrolyte for each electrode, and polyethylene membrane was used as the separator. Galvanostatic discharge/charge experiments were performed over a potential range of 2 V–0.01 V vs. Li+/Li using a battery cycler (NanoCycler-01, NANOBASE, Geumcheon-gu, Seoul, Korea) system under a constant current density of 100 mA g−1 at room temperature. Subsequently, the rate performance tests were performed using various current densities in the 100–10000 mA g−1 range. The cyclic voltammograms (CV) were performed at a scan rate of 50 mV s−1 battery-cycle tester (Biologic). 100 kHz–100 MHz frequency range at an AC amplitude of 10 mV was used to conduct the electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) test by ZIVE MP1 (WonaTech) analyzer.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Characterization of materials

XRD, FT-IR and Raman results are shown in Fig. 1ac to study the structural characteristics of C, Sn, and Sn/C. As shown in Fig. 1a, the XRD pattern of Sn includes diffraction signals at 30.0°, 32.1°, 43.0°, 44.0°, 55.0°, 62.0°, 63.0°, and 64.0°, well-matched to the (200), (101), (220), (211), (301), (112), (400), and (321) planes corresponding to the tetragonal phase of metallic tin (PDF#00-004-0673) with a space group of I41/amd [18]. Meanwhile, the XRD pattern of the BC exhibits amorphous with a broad hump at 26.7º [19]. The diffraction pattern of the composite indicates the presence of both components without any significant change.
The FT-IR spectra in Fig. 1b clarified their surface bonding information. Accordingly, the noisy band in the wavenumber range of 1000–1800 cm–1 could be assigned to the stretching vibration of the C-OH, C=O, and C=C groups. The broadband around 3300 cm–1 could be attributed to O–H motion. Those signals are characteristic of carbonaceous materials [20].
Raman spectroscopy was used to further examine the bonding changes in the material structures, and the results are shown in Fig. 1c. The Raman spectrum of Sn is shown at wave number 164.7 cm–1, corresponding to the Sn-Sn vibration. Usually, the Raman spectrum of carbon materials has two characteristic peaks, D and G. In particular, the G peak corresponds to the vibrations of phonons at the center of the Brillouin zone (E2g symmetry) of carbon and represents the vibrations of carbon atoms linked together by sp2 hybridization (bonds between carbon atoms in the graphene network). Peak D corresponds to the vibrations of the K-point phonons of A1g symmetry, also known as breathing vibrations of graphite layers, and represents the vibrations of sp3 hybridized carbon atoms and reflecting disorder and structural defects in the graphene membrane. This effect is explicitly shown in Fig. 1 for carbon and Sn/C composite, respectively, with two broad peaks of the spectrum at 1585 cm–1 (G band), which are vibrations of carbon sp2 while at wave number 1345 cm–1 (band D) corresponds to carbon in sp3 state. The thermal stability and Sncontent estimation were conducted using TG-DTA, as shown in Fig. 1d. Accordingly, the TG curve performs two main mass losses after 200°C and 600°C corresponding to the loss of adsorbed water, organic compounds, and the oxidation of carbon. Therefore, it is assumed that SnO2 is the remain after 600°C and the relevant Sn composition is roughly 55.79%.
The SEM and TEM images in Fig. 2 determined the surface morphology of the material. The results in Fig. 2 show that the carbon sample has a stacked-layer structure (Fig. 2a), and Sn particles tend to cluster together (Fig. 2b). The Sn/C composite sample (Fig. 2c) shows Sn particles’ dispersion on the amorphous carbon’s surface. At the same time, it shows that metallic Sn particles of different sizes exist widely and are relatively evenly distributed in the sample. This change may be due to the role of carbon in providing a suitable dispersion medium to help prevent the agglomeration of Sn particles during the synthesis of solid-state materials.
Meanwhile, the TEM image of the carbon material (Fig. 2d) indicates that thin layers are stacked on top of each other. In contrast, the composite (Fig. 2f) shows that the carbon surface is covered with Sn particles, and the distance between the layers is about 0.28 nm on the HRTEM image. This result dramatically aids in minimizing volume changes during energy storage.

Electrochemical characteristics

The electrochemical behavior of as-prepared electrodes was investigated using the CV method. As shown in (Fig. 3a), the first cathodic process of pure Sn electrode exhibits a strong, broad signal at a potential of 1.39 (V, vs. Li/Li+) ascribed to forming the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer [2123]. This signal is significantly minimized (1.20 V, vs. Li/Li+) in the second anodic curve and mostly disappears in the following cycle, which indicates the irreversibility of this reaction (indicates the unstable of SEI layer after 1st cycle may be due to the high volume change). The electrochemical signal in the lower potential range such as 0.63, 0.47, and 0.35 (V, vs. Li/Li+) could be assigned to the multistep alloying reaction of lithium to metallic tin to form LixSn compounds [24]. In the subsequent cycles, these signals shift to 0.70, 0.52, and 0.28 V (vs. Li/Li+), respectively, indicating the reversible capacity of these reactions (show clusters of tin (Sn) are susceptible to experiencing significant strain, resulting in the formation of cracks and exposure to the electrolyte on the surface). This phenomenon leads to a voltage shift, providing evidence of the instability of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI)). The cathodic curves include three peaks at 0.65, 0.74, and 0.80 (V, vs. Li/Li+) corresponding to the dealloying reaction of LixSn to metallic Sn [25]. Compared to the first cycle, the relevant redox peaks in the second and third cycles tend to decrease in intensity which implies the decay of capacity by cycling due to the vulnerable structure of this material. In the composite electrode (Fig. 3b), there is no significant change in redox potential compared to Sn. However, the observable duplication in cycles indicates an improvement in the cycling performance of electrodes. In addition, the signal intensity of SEI formation at a potential higher than 1.0 (V, vs. Li/Li+) is weak, demonstrating the formation of a thinner and more stable SEI layer which could be beneficial for the cycling behavior of this electrode. These results could be attributed to the buffering effect of the carbon matrix to stabilize the SEI layer and accommodate the volume variation of the material, minimizing direct contact between tin (Sn) and the electrolyte. These electrochemical signals were confirmed by the galvanostatic charge/discharge profiles, as shown in Fig. 4a,b. The first discharge profile of the pure Sn electrode performed a plateau at a potential of 1.40 (V, vs. Li/Li+) assigned to the formation of the SEI layer. The short plateaus in lower potentials are well-matched to the discussion in CV results. The first specific discharge/charge capacities of Sn and Sn/C electrodes were 524.5/222.8 and 1214.2/616.1 mAh g–1 corresponding to the first Coulombic efficiency (CE) of 42.47% and 50.74%. The improvement in these CE values is additional proof of the less irreversible process in the first cycle. Additionally, despite the decay periods observed in both electrodes, the variation in the Sn/C electrode is significantly less than that of the Sn electrode which is further demonstrated in the cycling performance. According to Fig. 3c, after decaying for 30 cycles, the cycling performance of the composite electrode stabilized and delivered a specific discharge capacity of 307.7 mAh g–1 at the 350th cycle. Meanwhile, the fast fading in capacity observed in the Sn electrode results in a specific discharge capacity of 40.3 mAh g–1 after 100 cycles and remains unchanged for the next 250 cycles. This observation illustrated the improved cycling performance of the composite electrode.
The rate behavior of these electrodes is exhibited in Fig. 3d. The specific capacity of the Sn electrode decays continuously with the increase in the applied specific current. On the opposite, the capacity of the Sn/C electrode performs negligible change at high specific currents. In particular, the Sn/C electrode delivered specific capacities of 486.2, 398.3, 388.2, 367.4, 334.6, 328.3, and 319.9 mAh g–1 at specific currents of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 5.0, and 10.0 A g–1, respectively. Fundamentally, the high-rate performance reflects the electrochemical kinetics of the lithium-ion storage reaction and illustrates the probability of fast charging application [26,27]. It is well-known that the high-rate capacity was limited by the (i) electronic conductivity and (ii) ionic diffusivity of electrode material; (iii) stability of the SEI layer, and (iv) electrode/electrolyte interface chemistry [2629]. In this study, the enhanced high-rate behavior of the Sn/C electrode could be attributed to the lower charge transfer resistance caused by the high electronic conductivity of the carbon matrix. Furthermore, the well-dispersion of Sn domains in a carbon matrix also offers a beneficial surface for electrolyte penetration and ionic diffusion. These discussions could be clarified using the EIS results. According to Fig. 4c,d, the EIS results of both electrodes consisted of a semicircle in the high-to-medium frequency region and a linear tail in the low-frequency range. The distorted arc could be assigned to the Ohmic resistance of the electrolyte and the charge transfer resistance. Therefore, the shorter the arc diameter, the lower the charge transfer resistance. According to the enlargement of Nyquist plots in Fig. 4d, the arc diameter of the Sn/C electrode is much shorter than that of the Sn electrode, which indicates the improved charge transfer ability. In addition, the linear tail is regarded as the ionic diffusion. Typically, the higher the slope of linear tails, the higher the value of lithium-ion diffusion coefficients. As shown in Fig. 4d the composite electrode performs higher lithium-ion conductivity. Furthermore, the Nyquist plots of the Sn/C electrode after 50 and 200 cycles show a significant reduction in charge transfer resistance [30,31]. Normally, the electrode after cycling tends to increase due to the thickening of the unstable SEI layer which resists electronic mobility [32]. However, the charge transfer resistance of the Sn/C electrode performs insignificant variations between the 50th and 200th cycles which implies the improved stability of the electrode/electrolyte interface and is beneficial for both electrons and ions transport. These observations agree with the discussion in the CV, charge/discharge profile, and well explained the excellent rate capability of this electrode.

CONCLUSIONS

In this work, a facile procedure has been conducted to synthesize metallic tin decorated on a biomass-derived carbon matrix. This electrode delivered an acceptable discharge capacity of 307.7 mAh g–1 after 350 cycles at a specific current of 0.1 A g–1 and a rated capacity of 319.9 mAh g–1 even at 10 A g–1. The stable cycling performance and negligible variation in high-rate capacity, which were attributed to the improved charge conductivity and stabilization of the thin electrode/electrolyte interfaces via the buffering effect of the carbon matrix, demonstrate the potential of this electrode material in the fast-charging application.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by The Domestic Postdoctoral Fellowship Program sponsored to Thi Thuy Trang Phan by Vingroup Innovation Foundation with code: VINIF.2022.STS.15

Fig. 1.
(a) XRD patterns, (b) FT-IR spectra, (c) Raman spectra of C, Sn, and Sn/C, and (d) TG-DTA plot of Sn/C.
jecst-2024-00696f1.jpg
Fig. 2.
SEM and relevant TEM images of (a, d) carbon, (b, e) Sn, (c, f) Sn/C samples.
jecst-2024-00696f2.jpg
Fig. 3.
Three first cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves of (a) Sn and (b) Sn/C electrode, (c) cycling performances of Sn and Sn/C, and (d) c-rate performance of the Sn and Sn/C electrodes.
jecst-2024-00696f3.jpg
Fig. 4.
Galvanostatic charge/discharge profiles of (a) Sn and (b) Sn/C electrodes, (c) Nyquist plots with (d) their expansion in the low-frequency range, of the Sn and Sn/C electrodes at open circuit voltage and the Sn/C electrode after 50 and 200 cycles.
jecst-2024-00696f4.jpg

References

[1] R. Vakulchuk, I. Overland and D. Scholten, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2020, 122, 109547.
crossref
[2] A. I. Osman, L. Chen, M. Yang, G. Msigwa, M. Farghali, S. Fawzy, D. W. Rooney and P.-S. Yap, Environ. Chem. Lett., 2023, 21, 741–764.
crossref pdf
[3] Y. Ding, Z. P. Cao, A. Yu, J. Lu and Z. Chen, Electrochem. Energy Rev., 2019, 2, 1–28.
crossref pdf
[4] J. Verma and D. Kumar, Nanoscale Adv., 2021, 3, 3384–3394.
crossref
[5] W. Liu, T. Placke and K. T. Chau, Energy Rep., 2022, 8, 4058–4084.
crossref
[6] H. Zhang, D. Ren, L. Wang and X. He, Energy Storage Mater., 2021, 36, 147–170.
crossref
[7] J. Asenbauer, T. Eisenmann, M. Kuenzel, A. Kazzazi, Z. Chen and D. Bresser, Sustainable Energy Fuels, 2020, 4, 5387–5416.
crossref
[8] L. Liu, F. Xie, J. Lyu, T. Zhao, T. Li and B. G. Choi, J. Power Sources, 2016, 321, 11–35.
crossref
[9] C.-H. Yim, S. Niketic, N. Salem, O. Naboka and Y. Abu-Lebdeh, J. Electrochem. Soc., 2016, 164, A6294.
crossref
[10] H. Zhao, W. Yuan and G. Liu, Nano Today, 2015, 10(2), 193–212.
crossref
[11] D. B. Mahadik, Y.K. Lee, T. Kim, W. Han and H.-H. Park, Solid State Ion., 2018, 327, 76–82.
crossref
[12] X. Cheng, C. Tang, C. Yan, J. Du, A. Chen, X. Liu, L. Jewell and Q. Zhang, Mater. Today Nano, 2023, 22, 100321.
crossref
[13] L. Junfeng and H. Runqing, Biomass Bioenergy, 2003, 25(5), 483–499.
crossref
[14] R. Madhu, V. Veeramani and S.-M. Chen, Sci. Rep., 2014, 4, 4679.

[15] A. Arami-Niya, T. E. Rufford and Z. Zhu, Energy Fuels, 2016, 30(9), 7298–7309.
crossref
[16] O. Fasakin, J. K. Dangbegnon, D. Y. Momodu, M. J. Madito, K. O. Oyedotun, M. A. Eleruja and N. Manyala, Electrochim. Acta, 2018, 262, 187–196.
crossref
[17] E. M. Lotfabad, J. Ding, K. Cui, A. Kohandehghan, W. P. Kalisvaart, M. Hazelton and D. Mitlin, ACS Nano, 2014, 8(7), 7115–7129.
crossref
[18] N. Oehl, G. Schmuelling, M. Knipper, R. Kloepsch, T. Placke, J. Kolny-Olesiak, T. Plaggenborg, M. Winter and J. Parisi, Cryst. Eng. Comm., 2015, 17, 8500–8504.
crossref
[19] Y. Zhang, Y. Huang, C. Feng, Y. Zhang and H. Wu, Ionics, 2019, 25, 6051–6059.
crossref pdf
[20] G. Shi, C. Liu, G. Wang, X. Chen, L. Li, X. Jiang, P. Zhang, Y. Dong, S. Jia, H. Tian, Y. Liu, Z. Wang, Q. Zhang and H. Zhang, Ionics, 2019, 25, 1805–1812.
crossref pdf
[21] S. J. An, J. Li, C. Daniel, D. Mohanty and S. Nagpure, Carbon, 2016, 105, 52–76.
crossref
[22] S. Menkin, C. A.O'Keefe, A. B. Gunnarsdóttir, S. Dey, F. M. Pesci, Z. Shen, A. Aguadero and C. P. Grey, J. Phys. Chem. C, 2021, 125(30), 16719–16732.
crossref pdf
[23] Y. Surace, D. Leanza, M. Mirolo, Ł. Kondracki, C. Vaz, P. Novák and S. Trabesinger, Energy Storage Mater., 2022, 44, 156–167.
crossref
[24] B. S. Reddy, T.-H. Lee, N. S. Reddy, H.-J. Ahn, J.-H. Ahn and K.-K. Cho, J. Alloys Compd., 2022, 918, 165578.
crossref
[25] J. Ryu, H. Kim, J. Kang, H. Bark, S. Park and H. Lee, Small, 2020, 16(46), 2004861.

[26] A. Tomaszewska, Z. Chu, X. Feng, S. O'kane, X. Liu, J. Chen, C. Ji, E. Endler, R. Li, L. Liu and B. Wu, eTransportation, 2019, 1, 100011.
crossref
[27] S. Li, K. Wang, G. Zhang, S. Li, Y. Xu, X. Zhang, X. Zhang, S. Zheng, X. Sun and Y. Ma, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2022, 32(23), 2200796.

[28] X. Feng, Y. Bai, M. Liu, Y. Li, H. Yang, X. Wang and C. Wu, Energy Environ. Sci., 2021, 14, 2036–2089.
crossref
[29] S. K. Heiskanen, J. Kim and B. L. Lucht, Joule, 2019, 3(10), 2322–2333.
crossref
[30] X. Liu, W. Si, J. Zhang, X. Sun, J. Deng, S. Baunack, S. Oswald, L. Liu, C. Yan and O.G. Schmidt, Sci. Rep., 2014, 4, 7452.

[31] V. Medabalmi and K. Ramanujam, ChemistrySelect, 2018, 3(38), 10657–10662.
crossref pdf
[32] J. Han and J. Ren, J. Mater. Sci., 2021, 56, 19119–19127.
crossref pdf


ABOUT
ARTICLE CATEGORY

Browse all articles >

BROWSE ARTICLES
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Editorial Office
E-mail: journal@kecs.or.kr    Tel: +82-2-568-9392    Fax: +82-2-568-5931                   

Copyright © 2025 by The Korean Electrochemical Society.

Developed in M2PI

Close layer
prev next